Although many bacterial diseases are, in general, easily treated with antibiotics, very few effective treatments exist for many viral, parasitic, cancerous, and genetic diseases. Cancer, for example, may be treated by surgical resection of a solid tumor. Nevertheless, a majority of patients with solid tumors also possess micrometastases beyond the primary tumor site. If treated with surgery alone, approximately 70% of these patients will experience recurrence of the cancer. Thus, cancer accounts for one-fifth of the total mortality in the United States, and is the second leading cause of death.
In addition to surgery, many cancers are now also treated with a combination of therapies involving cytotoxic chemotherapeutic drugs (e.g. vincristine, vinblastine, cisplatin, methotrexate, 5-FU, etc.) and/or radiation therapy. One difficulty with this approach, however, is that radiotherapeutic and chemotherapeutic agents are toxic to normal tissues, and often create life-threatening side effects. In addition, these approaches often have extremely high failure/remission rates (up to 90% depending upon the type of cancer).
Numerous other methods have been attempted in order to bolster or augment an individual's own immune system in order to eliminate cancer cells. For example, some scientists have utilized bacterial or viral components as adjuvants, in order to stimulate the immune system to destroy tumor cells. Such agents have generally been useful as adjuvants and as nonspecific stimulants in animal tumor models, but have not yet proved to be generally effective in humans.
Lymphokines have also been utilized in the treatment of cancer (as well as viral and parasitic diseases), in order to stimulate or affect specific immune cells in the generation of an immune response. One group, for example, utilized the lymphokine Interleukin-2 in order to stimulate peripheral blood cells in order to expand and produce large quantities of cells which are cytotoxic to tumor cells (Rosenberg et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 313:1485-1492, 1985).
Others have suggested the use of antibody-mediated treatment using specific monoclonal antibodies or “magic bullets” in order to specifically target and kill tumor cells (Dillman, “Antibody Therapy,” Principles of Cancer Biotherapy, Oldham (ed.), Raven Press, Ltd., New York, 1987). One difficulty, however, is that most monoclonal antibodies are of murine origin, and thus hypersensitivity against the murine antibody may limit its efficacy, particularly after repeated therapies. Common side effects include fever, sweats and chills, skin rashes, arthritis, and nerve palsies.
One approach which has recently garnered significant interest is the use of gene therapy, which has been utilized to treat not only genetic diseases, but viral and cancerous diseases as well (see PCT Publication Nos. WO 91/02805, EPO 415,731, and WO 90/07936). Briefly, specifically designed vectors which have been derived from viruses are used to deliver particular genetic information into cells. Such genetic information may itself be useful to block expression of damaging proteins or antigens (e.g., antisense therapy), may encode proteins which are toxic and kill selected cells, may encode therapeutic proteins which bolster a cell's immune response, or encode proteins which replace inactive or nonexistent proteins.
One protein which has recently been suggested for use in such therapies is the type 1 Herpes Simplex Virus thymidine kinase (HSVTK-1). Briefly, thymidine kinase is a salvage pathway enzyme which phosphorylates natural nucleoside substrates as well as nucleoside analogues (see Balasubramaniam et al., J. of Gen. Vir. 71:2979-2987, 1990). This protein may be utilized therapeutically by introducing a retroviral vector which expresses the protein into the cell, followed by administration of a nucleoside analogue such as acyclovir or ganciclovir. HSVTK-1 then phosphorylates the nucleoside analogue, creating a toxic product capable of killing the host cell. Thus, use of retroviral vectors which express HSVTK has been suggested for not only the treatment of cancers, but for other diseases as well.
The present invention provides novel thymidine kinase mutants and TK fusion proteins with enhanced biological activities which are suitable for a variety of applications, such as gene therapy, and further provides other, related advantages.